Socrates is widely recognized as the Father of Western Philosophy due to his significant contributions to critical thinking and inquiry. His method of questioning laid the groundwork for subsequent philosophical thought.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that explores the fundamental nature of reality, including the concepts of existence and being. It addresses questions about what is truly real beyond the physical world.

Plato introduced the allegory of the cave in his work 'The Republic' to illustrate the difference between the world of appearances and the realm of true knowledge. This allegory remains a central metaphor in Western philosophy.

Inductive reasoning involves drawing broader generalizations based on specific observations. This method is commonly used in forming hypotheses and theories in both philosophy and science.

Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one god, common in many ancient religions. This contrasts with monotheism, which is the belief in a single deity, and reflects differing approaches to spirituality.

Jean-Paul Sartre introduced the idea that existence precedes essence, suggesting that humans first exist without predefined purpose and then define themselves through their actions. This idea is a cornerstone of existentialist thought.

The Socratic method, named after Socrates, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that stimulates critical thinking. By asking a series of questions, it challenges assumptions and exposes underlying beliefs.

Utilitarianism is an ethical framework that assesses the morality of actions based on their outcomes, specifically aiming to maximize overall happiness or utility. This consequentialist approach contrasts with duty-based ethical theories.

Immanuel Kant developed the concept of the categorical imperative, a foundational principle in deontological ethics. This imperative mandates that actions should only be taken if the underlying rule can be universally applied.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that questions the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. It critically examines how knowledge is acquired and validated.

Occam's Razor is a heuristic that suggests the simplest explanation, with the fewest assumptions, is often the correct one. It encourages clarity and efficiency in forming theories and solving problems.

Skepticism is an approach in philosophy that involves a continuous questioning of knowledge claims and assumptions. It plays an essential role in challenging dogmatic beliefs and urging critical analysis.

The realm of Forms in Plato's philosophy represents the world of perfect, immutable ideas that exist independently of their imperfect physical manifestations. This concept is central to understanding his distinction between appearance and true reality.

Montesquieu is celebrated for his theory on the separation of powers, which has greatly influenced modern democratic systems. His work laid the foundation for checks and balances within governmental structures.

David Hume proposed that what we call the 'self' is nothing more than a collection of fleeting perceptions without any underlying constant essence. His ideas challenged traditional notions of identity and permanence.

David Hume's problem of induction points out that there is no logical basis for assuming the future will resemble the past. This challenges the certainty of scientific reasoning, which often depends on inductive inferences.

In existentialism, 'angst' describes a profound anxiety or dread resulting from the recognition of life's lack of inherent meaning. This concept underlines the existential challenge of finding personal significance in an indifferent universe.

Friedrich Nietzsche introduced the concept of the 'Übermensch' as an ideal for individuals to transcend conventional morality. This idea challenges traditional ethical systems and encourages the creation of personal values.

Robert Nozick criticizes utilitarianism for its potential to sacrifice individual rights by focusing solely on maximizing overall happiness. His argument draws attention to the ethical dilemmas of justifying harmful actions for the benefit of the majority.

Relativism is the concept that truth is not absolute but depends on various cultural, historical, and social contexts. It challenges the idea of objective, universal truth by emphasizing subjective perspectives.