Philosophy deals with the fundamental nature of life, including existence, knowledge, and ethics. It encourages critical analysis rather than merely collecting empirical data or memorizing information.

Socrates is best known for his method of questioning, known as the Socratic Method. This approach fosters critical thinking through dialogue and questioning rather than presenting fixed answers.

Descartes' statement 'I think, therefore I am' emphasizes that the act of thinking is proof of one's existence. It underlines the central role of thought as the foundation for self-awareness in philosophy.

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their consequences, specifically in terms of maximizing happiness. It focuses on the outcome of actions rather than adhering to predefined rules or traditions.

Plato's 'The Republic' is a dialogue that explores justice, the nature of the state, and the concept of an ideal society. It remains one of the seminal texts in Western philosophy, discussing the role of philosopher-kings and the structure of a just society.

In a deductive argument, if the presented premises are true, then the conclusion must be true as well. This form of reasoning ensures logical necessity and leaves little room for error compared to inductive reasoning.

Metaphysics examines the fundamental nature of reality including existence, objects, and their properties. It attempts to understand what things are at the most basic level, beyond empirical observation.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that focuses on knowledge, including its nature, sources, limits, and justification. It critically examines how we know what we claim to know.

Existentialism stresses the individual's capacity for free will and the responsibility that accompanies it. It challenges the notion of predetermined destiny by emphasizing personal choice and authenticity.

John Locke is renowned for his advocacy of natural rights, which include life, liberty, and property. These ideas greatly influenced modern democracy and the development of constitutional governments.

Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and artistic expression. It critically examines our perceptions of art and beauty, questioning what constitutes aesthetic value.

The key difference lies in their approach to knowledge: rationalism credits reason and innate ideas, while empiricism values sensory experience as the basis of understanding. This debate forms a crucial part of epistemological discussions.

Kant's ethical theory is founded on the categorical imperative, which requires that one act only according to maxims that can be willed to become universal laws. This principle is central to his deontological approach to morality.

The philosophy of mind focuses on the mind-body problem, exploring how mental states correlate with physical states. This issue raises important questions about consciousness and the nature of subjective experience.

Critical thinking enables the systematic evaluation of claims and arguments, helping to identify logical fallacies and inconsistencies. It is a fundamental skill in philosophy that promotes clarity and reasoned debate.

Edmund Husserl is recognized as the founder of phenomenology, a philosophical movement that studies the structures of consciousness and experience. His ideas have paved the way for later developments in continental philosophy.

Deconstruction questions the notion that texts have singular, stable meanings. By exposing the inherent ambiguities in language, Derrida's approach encourages readers to recognize multiple interpretations and challenge established hierarchies of meaning.

The key distinction lies in methodology: analytic philosophy prioritizes logical precision and clarity in arguments, while continental philosophy situates its inquiries within broader cultural and historical contexts. This division reflects differing priorities in addressing philosophical problems.

Existentialist ethics centers on the idea that individuals must create their own values through personal choice. This approach contrasts with traditional theories that often depend on established, universal moral laws.

Postmodern philosophy is marked by its skepticism towards overarching narratives that claim universal validity. It challenges the notion of objective truth and encourages the examination of how knowledge and truth are constructed.