Cognition encompasses the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, learning, and remembering. Understanding cognition is fundamental to exploring how people process information.

Operant conditioning involves modifying behavior through rewards and punishments. This method is a cornerstone of behavioral psychology and helps explain how consequences influence actions.

Classical conditioning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a response due to its association with an unconditioned stimulus. This process was famously demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments with dogs.

Reinforcement is used to encourage a behavior by providing a rewarding consequence. It plays a central role in shaping behavior through both positive and negative means in various psychological theories.

A stimulus in psychology refers to any external event or factor that triggers a response in an organism. Recognizing stimuli is essential in understanding behavior and the environment's influence on actions.

Observational learning occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching the actions of others. This concept highlights the importance of social models in the learning process.

A schema is a structure that organizes knowledge and guides information processing. It enables individuals to efficiently process vast amounts of information by categorizing experiences.

Confirmation bias is the propensity to favor information that reinforces existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence. This bias can lead to misinterpretation of data and skewed decision making.

The Hawthorne Effect refers to the alteration of behavior by individuals when they are aware of being observed. This concept highlights how external observation can influence performance and behavior in studies.

Latent learning is acquired knowledge that is not immediately expressed in behavior until a suitable situation arises. It demonstrates that not all learning is immediately observable.

A heuristic is a simple, efficient rule used to make quick decisions. Although heuristics reduce cognitive load, they can sometimes lead to systematic errors or biases in judgment.

Cognitive dissonance is the psychological stress or discomfort resulting from holding contradictory beliefs. Recognizing this concept can help explain why individuals might change their attitudes or behaviors to reduce discomfort.

Intrinsic motivation is when individuals engage in an activity because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable. This type of motivation is crucial for sustaining long-term engagement without reliance on external incentives.

Arousal refers to the level of physiological and psychological activation. It is an important concept in understanding how alertness and excitement influence behavior and cognitive performance.

Self-efficacy reflects an individual's belief in their capability to organize and execute actions required to manage prospective situations. It plays a vital role in determining how people think, behave, and feel about themselves.

The key distinction lies in the source of motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, fostering engagement for its own sake, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external incentives.

Self-actualization is a central concept in humanistic psychology, particularly in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It involves reaching one's full potential and realizing personal goals beyond basic survival or social acceptance.

Operationalization converts abstract theoretical concepts into concrete, measurable variables. This process is essential for testing hypotheses and ensuring that research findings are empirical and quantifiable.

Confirmation bias can lead researchers to favor information that supports their initial hypotheses, ultimately compromising the objectivity of the study. Recognizing and mitigating this bias is crucial for the validity of research outcomes.

This distinction is crucial in advanced research methodologies. Endogeneity can introduce bias if not controlled for, whereas exogenous variables are considered independent and thus more reliable for causal inference.