Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This field investigates how individuals think, feel, and act using systematic methods.

Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in 1879, marking the beginning of modern experimental psychology. His innovative work laid the groundwork for psychology as a scientific discipline.

Behaviorism focuses solely on observable behaviors and disregards internal mental states. It examines how stimuli and reinforcement shape behavior, making it distinct from other psychological perspectives.

Classical conditioning involves forming associations between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. This concept, famously demonstrated by Pavlov, is a foundational principle in behavioral psychology.

The cognitive perspective focuses on internal mental processes such as thinking, perception, memory, and reasoning. It examines how people acquire, process, and store information.

A case study involves detailed, in-depth analysis of a single person or group over time. This method can provide valuable insights into complex issues, though its findings may not always be generalizable.

Correlation measures the degree to which two variables are related, but it does not prove that one variable causes the other. Establishing causation requires controlled experimental designs that manipulate variables.

Validity refers to the degree to which a test accurately measures the concept it is intended to assess. It is a crucial aspect in evaluating the effectiveness and accuracy of psychological measurements.

Clinical psychology is dedicated to diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. It relies on various therapeutic approaches to help individuals manage psychological challenges.

Informed consent requires that participants are fully aware of the potential risks and benefits of a study before agreeing to take part. It is a cornerstone of ethical research practices in psychology.

A heuristic is a mental shortcut that helps individuals quickly make decisions or judgments. While heuristics simplify complex processes, they can sometimes lead to errors or biases in reasoning.

The biopsychosocial approach considers the combined effects of biological, psychological, and social factors on behavior. It highlights the complex interplay between genetics and environment in shaping human actions.

Short-term memory is known for its limited capacity, often described as holding between 5 to 9 items at a time. This limitation has been famously referred to as Miller's magic number.

The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation and consolidation of new memories. Its dysfunction is often associated with significant memory impairments.

Social psychology studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It places a strong emphasis on understanding the effects of social influence and group dynamics on behavior.

Experimental designs with random assignment are best suited to establish cause-and-effect relationships because they control for confounding variables. This method allows researchers to manipulate independent variables and observe their direct impact on dependent variables.

Cognitive dissonance theory posits that when there is a discrepancy between one's beliefs and behaviors, it creates psychological discomfort. To reduce this discomfort, individuals may change their attitudes or rationalize their decisions.

Projection is a defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. This process helps reduce internal conflict by externalizing feelings that are difficult to accept.

Operant conditioning is centered on the use of reinforcement or punishment to shape behavior. In contrast, classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

Observational learning occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching and imitating others. This process emphasizes the role of social interaction and modeling in learning new skills.