Taxation without representation was a major grievance that fueled colonial dissent against British policies, ultimately leading to the American Revolution. The other options relate to later historical events or ideologies not central to the revolutionary era.

Thomas Jefferson was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, crafting the document that articulated the colonies' reasons for separation from Britain. While other founding figures played key roles, Jefferson's contribution was the most significant in this context.

The Northwest Ordinance provided a structured process for admitting new states into the Union and governed the Northwest Territory. This set an important precedent for orderly expansion, whereas the other options do not reflect its primary purpose.

The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements between colonial militias and British troops, igniting the armed conflict of the American Revolution. This event directly challenged British authority and mobilized colonial resistance.

The Articles of Confederation served as the initial framework for governance among the newly independent states during the Revolution. It provided a basis for political organization, even though it was later replaced by the U.S. Constitution for being less effective.

The 13th Amendment, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery throughout the United States. The other amendments focus on citizenship rights, equal protection, and voting rights, but do not address the abolition of slavery.

The Monroe Doctrine was established to prevent European powers from interfering in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. It asserted that the Americas were within the U.S. sphere of influence and protected newly independent Latin American states.

The market revolution took place during the early 19th century as industrialization, improved transportation, and a shift toward a commercial economy transformed American society. It marked a move from agrarian economies toward industrial and market-based production.

The ruling in Marbury v. Madison established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare legislative and executive actions unconstitutional. This decision reinforced the judiciary as a coequal branch of government and has had a lasting impact on American constitutional law.

The deep-seated disagreements over slavery and the extent of states' rights were central to the tensions that led to the Civil War. These divisive issues created irreconcilable differences between the North and South, ultimately sparking conflict.

The end of the Civil War marked the start of the Reconstruction era, as the nation sought to rebuild the South and address the challenges of reintegrating the former Confederate states. This period involved extensive political, social, and economic reforms.

The Missouri Compromise was enacted to maintain a balance by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It was a key legislative effort to manage sectional tensions regarding the expansion of slavery.

The Progressive Era was marked by significant reforms aimed at reducing the power of large monopolies and addressing issues of economic disparity. Reform-minded politicians and citizens pushed for regulations that reshaped American political and economic life.

The New Deal expanded the federal government's intervention in the economy by creating programs for relief, recovery, and reform. Although it did not end the Great Depression overnight, it laid the foundation for long-term economic reforms and regulatory frameworks.

The conclusion of World War II set the geopolitical stage for the Cold War by creating a power vacuum and fostering ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union. This transition led to the establishment of competing military and political alliances that defined the era.

Manifest destiny was a belief that American expansion across the continent was both justified and inevitable, often viewed as a divine mission. This ideology encouraged the annexation of vast territories and influenced policies that promoted westward expansion.

Federalists believed in a robust central government to foster commerce and industry, whereas Democratic-Republicans promoted states' rights along with an agrarian-based economy. These contrasting visions deeply influenced the political structure and policy debates of the early United States.

The Civil Rights Movement resulted in major legislative achievements such as the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act that continue to influence American society. These reforms fostered greater racial equality, even though challenges still exist today.

The Watergate scandal exposed deep abuses of power and corruption at the highest levels of government, which significantly eroded public trust. In response, there was a strong push for increased governmental transparency and oversight that reshaped political accountability.

The intense competition of the Cold War spurred significant increases in military spending, which in turn affected a wide range of domestic policies including education, technology, and infrastructure. This era reshaped the American economy and society by prioritizing defense and innovation.